The Origins Of English Figurative Idioms English Language Essay

The Origins Of English Figurative Idioms English Language Essay Idiom is the combination of lexical items and has its own meaning which is different from the particular individual lexical items and this figurative expression is usually understood by the native speakers because figurative idiom expression is likely to be named as the conventional scene in the their mind that serves in the speech community. Similarity, idioms are consisted as a special set of lexical items due not only to their structure elements, but also they specify a unique set of behavior when used in very language discourse. Fernando argues that the concreted phrases and the arrangement pairs in idiomatic are recognized by the usage and with its stabilized structure and limited variation. To expand the explanation, idioms can be formed a word such as nevertheless, a phrase such as in favor of, and also a sentence such as the coast is clear. According to Boers definition of figurative idiom, whose meaning is barely inferred by its literal meaning of its constituent elements. T herefore, from the semantic point of view, the expression of a figurative idiom cannot be understood from its individual parts. Structurally an idioms usually includes a series of words, any parts of its meanings cannot be replaced. Figurative idioms, it is a matter of extraordinary rather than ordinary languages. Base on Lakoff and Johnson explanation, idioms are also known as the metaphor that serves as a device of poetic imagination and the rhetorical flourish dedicates for most languages. Moreover, figurative expressions are not merely bundles of word combination; however it is a phrase that ordinarily invented to one situation that inferred to another, making an implicit comparison. Another scholar Tang explains figurative idioms unsurprisingly have been coined with the name of its meaning. Ultimately, the figurative interpretation of every idiom evokes the metaphorical expressions. As the manifestation of conceptual metaphor was introduced, Z. Kovecses conceptualizes metaphors are realized in other than linguistic ways. For example, literary works are constructed in their fully in term of conceptual metaphors such as Chaucers The Cantebury tales, Buyams The Pilgrim Progress or Frosts poem The Road not Take n are associated around the LIFE IS A JOURNEY metaphor. As result, although there is always a difference in every definition of figurative idiom, yet they all have the similar description to explain idioms have the obvious characteristics of semantic incorporated and structural stability. 2.1) Culture context Language structure is the most typical feature of cultural aspects that such relationship particularly found in the lexicon. As Wierzbicka lists out the best evidence for reality of cultures can associate the meanings of words that eventually provides ways of living, speaking, thinking, and feeling which are broadly shared in every particular society. In addition, the Polish anthropologist Malinnowsky is the first founder of the context theory thinks that discourse and context are mutually hanging closely together, the language environment is essential to understand language.(à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) Meanwhile, Boers and Stengers declare the significant of cultural figurative expression has been emphasized much recent research. Gibbs study claims that idioms are established in all languages and several types of idioms are cultural elements. Wierzbicka states that most of figurative idioms are cultural artifacts, reflecting the aspects the creation of figurative idioms which are formed by cul tural elements. Inchaurralde mentions particular lexical units are linked with cultural lexical scripts, which are associated to a certain cultural background. Furthermore, Lennon points out language and culture are important to idioms because it could reflect the transformation in conceptualization of the universe and the relationship between the universe and the mankind. The Chinese Linguist Hu Zhunaglin has divided the cultural context into three types: linguistics context, situational context, and cultural context. Most importantly, the cultural context refers the involvement of social, economic, cultural, political background, and religions contexts occur in communities that would value the standard of a certain language. Dobrovolskij and Piirainen comes out with an idea to describe the different types of cultural phenomena are interrelated with conventional figurative units. This means that culturally marked lexis has focused on cross-cultural similarity and the variation across in the conceptualization of emotions. Another issue that Lakoff and Johnson discuss about whether all cultures have the same conceptual of the world. Base on Issac simplification, every figurative expression has a certain class of metaphors seems to be universal. However some cultural specifications also occur in conceptual metaphor, in other word, different culture have a different set of value systems that might result in different interaction to certain expression from others cultures. For example, in Shakespeares period, the food egg is to characterize people behavior or attitude, for instance, She is a good egg means that she is a nice person. In Chinese, there is record in the literature work egg transcript to mandarin Dan also symbolizes to a person behavior and attitude. The Mandarin word huai dan signifies as bad person. These two different cultural context has shared the same particular meaning of the phrase is directed and extended to describe people who seen to be decent person. Although English and Chinese utilize the food egg to imply the same target expression, on the other hand, the English expression good egg is to indicate a nice person, however the Chinese expression to indicate a nice person no longer utilizes egg to imply the meaning rather than change the whole word into hao ren instead of hao dan. 2.2) Idiom and culture Language has been always the carrier of culture and most important idioms that almost invariably to have their roots in a particular language. Another researcher Ronald Langacker argues that language is instrument and module of culture, speakers take part in a discourse situation, their cultural aspects are related to their acts of behavior and conversation. Moreover, Paul Friedrich calls the connection between language and culture as linguaculture. The conceptual of linguaculture is described as a domain of experience that fuses and intermingles the vocabulary, many semantic aspects of grammar, and the verbal aspects of culture; both grammar and culture have underlying structure while they are constantly being used and constructed by actual people on the ground. (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) As an important part of language and culture, particular source domain of metaphorical expression may not be equally salient across cultures. (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) Meanwhile, few researches have been introduced on the cultural features in the present study that lead Boers and Stengers to investigate on the composition of idiom and culture. They explore weather domain that track most in English figurative idioms. The weather domain is commonly associated to English figurative idioms because talking about the weather is a very basic and frequently topic in Britain because it is notoriously variable and unpredictable. However, the weather lexical units can be implemented through meaning extension to other domains such as economy and feeling, for example, when a financial storm struck down Wall Street, traders sought shelter in the dollar and Alex feels the chill of economic downturn. As result, the sentence illustrates the weather domain to a situation and feeling to indicate the seriousness on how Englishmen see weather as well as the economic phenomena. Boers, Demecheleer, and Eyckmans suggest that there are two complementary methods to estimate the two linguistic communities differ with respect to relate salience of a source domain. One method is to investigate the comparison of both languages such as English and Dutch idioms, that English idioms has much broader selection of expressions converted from card games and gambling such as to over play ones hand, to play with stacked deck, the chips are downà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Another much more straight forward example is the domain of sports, popularity of certain sports may coin widely across cultural aspects. Baseball for instance, is much more popular in the United States than in European, for sure it is evidently that American produces more baseball figurative expression such as I had a date with Alice yesterday night, unfortunately I cant even get to first base with her; Three strike and youre out. Similarity, British English hold a source domain in cricket such as Bat on a sticky wick et, Hit someone for six. Besides, Englishmen also like to have horse racing eventually contributes to figurative expressions as well such as A dark horse, Hear it from the horse mouth. The another method is to detect cross-cultural variation done by researcher Alice Deignan results that the source domain of sailing is reflected more often in English than in French discourse. For examples, Running tight ship, Talking the wind out of someones sails, when you ship comes in, clear the decks, and many more. Boers and Demecheleer suggests that French figurative discourse is more likely flavoured by the source domain of food and cooking. Alice Deignan concludes that the cultural aspects and figurative idioms are considered indirect ones in the sense that cultures of the past and present reflect most of idioms and Boers sums up that even native speakers lack of awareness towards the origin of the idiom they use. 2.3) Origins of English Figurative Idioms According to Smith (1971), generally universal origins of idioms can be divided into four main cultural aspects. 2.3.1) From daily life Smith suggests that most idioms develop from daily life are linked with particular occupations such as many phrases that related to navy have been invented by the sailors as well as the athletes use phrases related to sports. Most of the idioms were invented and they are concise, oral dialect and vivid, and are closely associated to our life. Soon enough those idioms were used by the people in the daily life to indicate certain expressions. Such figurative expressions are useful and eventually it has been evolved from common dialogue to conventional language which those idioms are commonly use such as to share and woe, strike the iron whole it is hot, a pot of money, to take the bread out of someones mouth and many more. 2.3.2) From ancient myths, legends and fables Some English figurative idioms were influenced by the Ancient Greek and Roman civilization. From example, idioms such as Midas touch, the apple of discord, sour grape, pandoras box, trojon horse, etc are derived from Greek myths and legends which are widely used in writing. 2.3.3) From religion Religion stands an important role in contributing the source of idioms. In early western countries, traditionally, Christianity has always been the main religion, many sources of idioms are regularly used in verbal dialogue are mainly came from the bible such as judass kiss, olive branch, much cry and little wool, turn the other cheek, cast peals before swine, and writing on the wall. 2.3.4) From classical literature

Charter of Rights and Freedoms Essay

Former United States Attorney General Ramsey Clark wrote in the New York Times, â€Å"A right is not what someone gives you; but what no one can take away.† It is in this vein that a country drafts legislation to protect the rights of their inhabitants. In the United States there is the Bill of Rights, which consists of a preamble and the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution, 1787 . The Charter of Rights and Freedoms is the first part of the Canadian Constitution Act, 1982 . Both of these documents provide for the rights and freedoms that both countries see as inalienable to their respective populations. This is where the similarity between them ends. These documents are vastly different. They were crafted in different centuries and therefore have different emphases. One key difference between the two documents is how they treat criminal law and the rights attached to an investigation. Another interesting comparison is what both documents do not discuss. In Canada, if a person is detained they are required to be informed of their constitutional right to an attorney in accordance to Section 10(b) of the charter and SCR R vs. Therens 1985. The judgment reads: â€Å"Where a detainee is required to provide evidence which may be incriminating and where refusal to comply is punishable as a criminal offence,†¦ s. 10(b) imposes a duty not to call upon the detainee to provide that evidence without first informing him of his s. 10(b) rights and providing him with a reasonable opportunity and time to retain and instruct counsel.† In the United States, a detainee’s right to council falls under amendment six to the constitution . Chief Justice Warren’s report reads: â€Å"The prosecution may not use statements, whether exculpatory or inculpatory, stemming from custodial interrogation of the defendant unless it demonstrates the use of procedural safeguards effective to secure the privilege against self-incrimination . . . As for the procedural safeguards to be employed . . . the following measures are required. Prior to any questioning, the person must be warned that he has a right to remain silent,  that any statement he does make may be used as evidence against him, and that he has a right to the presence of an attorney, either retained or appointed.† The difference between the details of these two ideas is great. The Charter makes the reading of the rights mandatory prior to anything that might be incriminating. This includes line ups, breathalyzers, etc . In the United States Miranda only has to be read once the person is custody, under interrogation or arrest. Miranda is the slang term given to the rights that the detainer is obliged to recite to the detainee before their detention. It begins with the lines made famous by cop shows, â€Å"You have the right to remain silent. Anything you do or say can and will be used against you in a court of law . . . † In Canada, because we have no Fifth Amendment law the detainee does not need to be warned against self incrimination. Also, in Canada, after the recitation of the rights, the detainee needs to be asked if they understand and if they want to call a lawyer now. These differences occur because of the nature of the two documents. The Bill of Rights was partially a reaction to anti-federalist complaints that the constitution gave to much power to the federal government. It was not written with the same forethought that was put into the Charter. Justice Lamer suggests that the differences emerge from the expansiveness that needs to be incorporated into a document of the charter variety . This is seen in other sections of both documents as well. The fourth amendment states, â€Å"The right of people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated.† The Charter states in s. 8, â€Å"Everyone has the right to be secure against unreasonable search or seizure.† This provision of s. 8 is broad and conditional only to the provisions of s. 7 and the principles of fundamental justice. Is the body protected by this right? Does search include both body and place? The 8th amendment states, â€Å"nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.† S. 12 uses the word â€Å"subjected†. The difference is that S. 12 can be applied to matters other then criminal punishment, as seen in Rodriguez v. British Colombia [1993] 3. S.C.R. The documents were written at very different times and for very different purposes. Out of this arise many differences. The Bill of Rights has a long history entangled with that of the American Constitution. It was the anti-federalists attack on the American Constitution. Patrick Henry told the Virginia Convention, â€Å"What can avail your specious, imaginary balances, your rope-dancing, chain-rattling, ridiculous ideal checks and contrivances.† They demanded a more concise constitution that clearly laid out the rights of the people and the limitations of the government. James Madison wrote in his diary, â€Å"that such fundamental maxims of free Government would be a good ground for an appeal to the sense of community against potential oppression and would counteract the impulses of interest and passion.† The Bill of Rights that Madison passed was based heavily upon The Virginia Declaration of Rights. The Virginia Declaration was a document that was written during the British occupation. Thomas Jefferson drew heavily upon it for The Declaration of Independence. Because it was written during the time of oppression of the British it very specifically counteracts the then current grievances. Is the issue of quartering a solider in your house at peace time such a pressing on that it is addressed in the Bill of Rights? There is no such provision in the Charter. Many of the rights guaranteed were those that were removed by the British. The British limited freedom of speech, freedom of assembly and freedom of the press. All of these rights are affirmed in the first amendment. To prevent revolution, the British limited the right to bear arms that is now protected in the second amendment. The Charter of Rights and Freedoms was written almost two hundred years after the Bill of Rights. It replaced the relatively ineffective Bill of Rights, 1960 that only affected the laws made after its inception. It was also a bill so it could be altered by an Act of Parliament. The late seventies, early eighties were a time of development and change. The country was still reeling from the FLQ crisis and was troubled by the possibility of Quebec separating from the rest of Canada. When Pierre Treudeau wanted to repatriate the constitution from Britain, he encountered heavy opposition  from the provinces, mainly Quebec. Tredeau then added the notwithstanding clause, or s. 33 of the charter to appease their concerns. What is seen as the Achilles heel, the flaw in the foundation of the charter is a result of the political pressures of the period in which it was written. The time period also had a great effect on the scope and nature of the charter. During the Treudeau years society began a liberalization that is continuing today. The rights of the individual became more and more important over those of the community. This is seen to the rights granted in the Charter that were not in the Bill of Rights. Mobility rights and equality rights were not expressly provided for in the Bill of Rights. The differences in the time periods have created documents with a very different focus. The American Bill of Rights protects the states against the tyranny and oppression of the federal government. The Charter of Rights and Freedoms protects individual rights and those of minority groups against subjugation by the majority. The Bill of Rights and the Charter do not provide for many rights that we see as fundamental. Both documents do not mention the word privacy or provide for definitions of expectations of privacy . They let the courts determine that reflective of society. It took a series of landmark rulings in 1973 for the USSC to define what â€Å"a reasonable expectation of privacy † is. The Canadian Supreme Court did the same with the first Charter challenges, including Hunter v. Southam Inc. and others. The Bill of Rights does not mention God, while the Charter begins with â€Å"Whereas Canada is founded upon the principles that recognize the supremacy of God and the rule of law.† This creates a complete separation of Church and State in the Bill of Rights, while providing for religious schools in the Charter. The Charter does not provide a right to property, economic rights or labour rights. This means that the rights of unions to bargain collectively, the rights to compensation for confiscated property and the right to form unions are not protected except by act of parliament. In the Bill of Rights it says, â€Å"nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just  compensation.† The Charter has Section One, a legal tool by which the Supreme Court can limit the rights of the people. It provides that no right is absolute and is subject to reasonable limits that can be justified in a free and democratic society. The Bill of Rights has no such tool. In fact, the first amendment begins, â€Å"Congress shall make no law respecting . . .† This results in the USSC protecting the rights of Neo-Nazis to parade through a neighborhood of holocaust survivors and allowing for the formation of religious cults. The Charter also has s.33 as mentioned above. The provinces have the right to opt out of federal laws. In Quebec, all laws begin, â€Å"Notwithstanding the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.† The Bill of Rights has no such section. This is a result of the American Civil War. During the Civil War, the South succeeded from the Union because they chose not to abide by the slavery laws. To prevent this from happening again, no such provision was included in the Bill of Rights. The American Bill of Rights and The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms are two documents that protect the rights and freedoms of the citizens and landed residents of their respective countries. This is where the clear similarities between the documents end. They deal with the ideas of legal and prosecutorial rights very differently. The documents differ greatly in the origins and focus. The documents are also at variance in what they do not include. Both documents play a fundamental role in protecting the ways in which we live our lives. Their differences and variances provide and define the differences between our two societies. Bibliography: *Amar, Akhil Reed. The Bill of Rights: Creation and Reconstruction. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998. *Beaudoin, Gerald A. The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Toronto: Carswell, 1989. *Douglas, Ann. The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Canda in the 80’s. Scarborough: Prentice-Hall Canada Inc., 1999. *Dumbauld, Edward. The Bill of Rights and What It Means Today. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 1979. *Greene, Ian. The Charter of Rights. Toronto: J. Lorimer, 1989. *MacCharles, Tonda. â€Å"Book ‘Em Dano! Canada’s Tough Arrest Rules.† The Toronto Star 15 April 2002. *McKercher, William Russel. The U.S. Bill of Rights and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Toronto: Ontario Economic Council, 1983. *Supreme Court of Canada, http://www.lexum.umontreal.ca/csc-scc/en/index.html University of Montreal. *The Bill of Rights, http://www.nara.gov/exhall/charters/billrights/billmain.html National Archives and Record Administration. *U.S. Supreme Court, Arizona v Miranda, http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=384&invol=436 Findlaw.

Effect of Training on Staff Productivity in Kenyan Banks

EFFECT OF TRAINING ON STAFF PRODUCTIVITY IN KENYAN BANKS: A CASE OF KENYA COMMERCIAL BANK (KCB) By Abong’o Chacha A thesis presented to the School of Business and Economics of Daystar University Nairobi, Kenya In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION In Strategic Management and Human Resource Management April 2012 Approval EFFECT OF TRAINING ON STAFF PRODUCTIVITY IN KENYAN BANKS: A CASE STUDY OF KENYA COMMERCIAL BANK (KCB) By Abongo ChachaIn accordance with Daystar University policies, this thesis is accepted in partial fulfillment of requirements for the Master of Business Administration degree. Date _________________________________________________ Mr. Thomas Koyier, Supervisor _________________________________________________ Prof. David Minja, Reader. DECLARATION EFFECT OF TRAINING ON STAFF PRODUCTIVITY IN KENYAN BANKS: A CASE STUDY OF KENYA COMMERCIAL BANK (KCB). I declare that this thesis is my original work and has n ot been submitted to any ther college or university for academic credit. Signed: ____________________________Date: ________________ Abongo Chacha ABSTRACT The objectives of the study were to analyze the effect of training on staff productivity in Kenyan banks. This involved determination of the effectiveness of training methods and their effects in employees’ productivity. The study also aimed to recommend the best strategies in employees training. This study covered 15 branches of one of the major banks in Kenya (Kenya Commercial Bank, KCB).Stratified sampling method was applied to select the bank branches and purposive sampling was applied to select 80 respondents of the study. The survey questionnaire was utilized in the data collection. The data collected was therefore descriptive in nature. Descriptive statistic technique and multiple regression analysis were applied in the analysis of the collected data. The major findings of the study showed that the common employeesâ €™ training strategies in KCB were on-the-job training, e-learning training, class-room training and workshop training.The effectiveness of the training methods applied by the KCB was relatively high as evidenced by the effectiveness of the detailed content of e-learning programs; well organized e-learning programs; importance of on-the-job training programs in employees’ deeper understanding of various concepts in the banking services for instance; On-the-job training methods enabled the employees to learn about the rules and principles of work, courtesy, manners and techniques of handling interpersonal relations.The results also show that the current training methods applied at the KCB have been effective at great extent in promoting productivity of the employees. This means that there is improved work output per time, efficiency, accuracy and more skills are developed among the employees. The most effective training strategies in enhancing productivity of the employees were deemed to be on-the-job training, seminars/ workshop training and e-learning while class-room training showed less significant effect in employees’ productivity. TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATIONiii ABSTRACTivTABLE OF CONTENTSv LIST OF FIGURESviii LIST OF TABLESix CHAPTER ONE1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY1 Introduction1 Background of the Study1 Profile of Kenya Commercial Bank (KCB)8 Statement of the Problem9 Purpose of the Study10 Objectives of the Study10 Research Questions10 Justification11 Significance of the Study12 Assumptions12 Limitations12 Definition of Terms, abbreviations and acronyms13 Chapter Summary13 CHAPTER TWO14 LITERATURE REVIEW14 Introduction14 Theoretical Framework14 Human Capital Theory14 Kirkpatrick's learning and training evaluation theory16Effects of Training on Employee Productivity17 Training and Employee performance18 Training and Employee Commitment20 Training Methods and Employee Productivity21 Training and Employee Effectiveness24 T raining Quality and Performance27 Models for Measuring the Effectiveness of Training30 Strategic Approach to Training and Development33 Empirical Review37 Conceptual Framework39 Chapter Summary41 CHAPTER THREE42 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY42 Introduction42 Research Design42 Population43 Target and Accessible Population43 Sample Size44 Sampling Techniques44 Sampling Frame48 Type of Data49Data Collection Instruments51 Pre-testing52 Data Collection Procedure52 Data Analysis53 Chapter Summary54 CHAPTER FOUR55 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION55 Introduction55 Response Rate55 Employee Training Strategies used by KCB57 Class room training57 E-learning programs62 On the job training67 Effectiveness of the Employees Training methods used by KCB71 Effectiveness of training methods on employee productivity at KCB72 Best training strategies for maximum employee productivity at KCB73 Regression Analysis74 Chapter Summary77 CHAPTER FIVE78 SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS78Introdu ction78 Summary of the Findings78 Employee Training Strategies78 Effectiveness of Training Methods79 Best training strategies for maximum employee productivity at KCB79 Conclusion79 REFERENCES81 APPENDICES89 Appendix A: Research Questionnaire89 Appendix B: Timeline96 Appendix C: Budget98 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 4. 1: Age56 Figure 4. 2: Education level56 Figure 4. 3: Work experience57 Figure 4. 4: Extent to which class room training affect employees’ commitment in KCB58 Figure 4. 5: Extent to which classroom training affect employee motivation in KCB59 Figure 4. : Extent to which classroom training affect employees' self efficacy in KCB60 Figure 4. 7: Extent to which classroom training affect employee productivity at KCB61 Figure 4. 8: Extent to which e-learning programs affect employees’ commitment in KCB63 Figure 4. 9: Extent to which e-learning programs affect employees' motivation in KCB64 Figure 4. 10: Extent to which e-learning programs affect employees' self effic acy in KCB65 Figure 4. 11: Extent to which e-learning programs affect employee productivity at KCB66 Figure 4. 12: Extent to which on job training programs affect employees’ commitment at KCB68 Figure 4. 3: Extent to which on the job training programs affect employee motivation in KBC69 Figure 4. 14: Extent to which the job training programs affect employees' self efficacy in KCB70 Figure 4. 15: Extent to which on the job training programs affect employee productivity at KCB70 LIST OF TABLES Table 3. 1: Sampling Frame48 Table 4. 1: Extent of agreement of the respondents with class room training as a strategy in employee training. 57 Table 4. 2: The level of agreement on of the respondents on E learning programs62 Table 4. 3: The level of agreement on of the respondents on on job training67 Table 4. : The level of rating of the respondents on effectiveness of training methods71 Table 4. 5: The level of agreement on of the respondents on effectiveness of training methods72 Tabl e 4. 6: The extent to which the following training methods affect employee productivity at KCB72 Table 4. 7: The level of agreement of the respondents on statements on the best training strategies for maximum employee productivity at KCB73 Table 4. 8: Coefficients of the Independent Variables75 Table 4. 9: Analysis of Variance76 Table 4. 10: Squared Multiple Correlation Coefficient, R276CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY Introduction This chapter presents a brief introduction as well as historical background of employee training. An overall background of the study has been defined clearly, problem statement, objectives, assumptions, and limitations. Key terms have been defined and operationalized. Further the researcher has shown clearly why the topic has emerged as a topic of importance to the researcher. Background of the Study Nadeem (2010) defined training as the process of transmitting and receiving information to problem solving.This implies that training is for specific purpose. Omole (1991) sees training as any process concerned with the development of aptitudes, skills and abilities of employees to perform specific jobs with a view to increase productivity. An organisation may have employees with the ability and determination, with the appropriate equipment and managerial support yet productivity falls below expected standards. The missing factor in many cases is the lack of adequate skills, and knowledge, which is acquired through training and development.Commenting further Iboma (2008) is of the opinion that effective training can change the entire view of workers in an organisation and make the firm more productive as new skills and attitudes are developed by workers. Looking at the indispensability of training and development to an industrial set up, Ladipo-Ajayi (1994) observed that both are very demanding ventures in any organization because people commit huge resources to them. Training is one of the most important strategies for organizations to help employees gain proper knowledge and skills needed to meet the environmental challenges (Goldstein and Gilliam, 1990).Employee training represents a significant expenditure for most organizations. Tella and Popoola (2007) relating training to library work stated that it is as an essential strategy for motivating workers in the library as a service organization. For the Librarian or information professional to have opportunities for self-improvement and development to meet the challenges and requirements to perform a task there is the need to acquire the needed skills suitable for the work at hand. Institute for Work & Health (2010) defines training as planned efforts to facilitate the learning of specific competencies.These competencies typically consist of specialized knowledge, skills and behaviours needed for success in a particular environment. Training methods can range from a one-time dissemination of information to intensive programs administered over a long period of time. Njavallil (2007) did study training of bank employees by doing a comparative study between new generation banks and public sector banks in India. By then, there had come about many challenges in the banking sector following the new economic policy that was introduced during the nineties.The emerging business profile of banks included newer financial services, personal investment counseling, factoring, venture capital and possibly consultancy research services. This called for new knowledge, skills and attitudes and training systems to stand up to the challenges that demanded for changes in the approaches to training. The study found that significant differences existed between the two categories of banks regarding the training provided to its employees. The differences were related to certain aspects.Based on the study it was inapt to say that the training approach of a particular type of bank was significantly enhanced compared to the other. Sulu (2011) stud ied motives for training in the Nigerian banking industry focusing on the motives for training using the Nigerian banking industry as a case study . The study relied on both qualitative and quantitative analysis of data. The entire staff of the 25 commercial banks as at 2007 in Nigeria was the population of the study. The results of the analysis showed that banks saw training as important factors, as well as aving motives for investing in training. These motives included – new technology; productivity; responding to skills deficiencies; moral duty; new hire request; and staff request. Some of the recommendations based on the findings include – training should be seen as one of the most important strategies for organizations to help employees gain proper knowledge and skills needed to meet the environmental challenges; it must also be noted that, training though primarily concerned with people, is also concerned with technology, the precise way an organization does busi ness.Ghebrecristos (1983), studied training methods and techniques in an organization using a case study of the Commercial Bank of Africa Ltd. Nairobi, Kenya. From the findings, CBA used several training methods and techniques in building the employee capability. They made use of classroom teaching, on the job training and seminars and workshops. Ling (2007) notes that training is viewed as an expensive investment for a business organization and is often neglected during recession.The author cites a reason as the value and contribution could not be effectively ascertained. Ling (2007) mentioned that in most studies relating to training effectiveness, the focus was on establishing the relationship between training system or practices or factors (individual and organizational) with training effectiveness, with emphasis on objective, content, organizational factors, expenditures, duration of training, coverage of employees, delivery methods, profitability, growth and overall organizati on performance.IAEA (2003) states that while it is abundantly clear that training can provide added value, a measured, isolated, determination of training effectiveness is difficult because personnel performance depends not only on training, but also on many other factors such as supervision, procedures, job aids, pre-job briefings, management expectations, and the experience and motivation of the workforce. The measurement of training effectiveness i. e. how well the training inputs are serving the intended purpose has also elicited wide reviews.IAEA (2003) identified three kinds of training outputs that organisations need to measure. They are: relating to course planning, relevance, comprehension and whatever goes on in the teaching programme and the environment; the utilisation of what is learnt on the job i. e. transferring the classroom learning to the job in terms of skills, competencies, decision making, problem-solving abilities and relationships and the like; and the change s in the mind set such as work related attitudes, values, interpersonal competencies and personal attributes.Winfred, Winston, Edens and Bell (2003) noted that the continued need for individual and organizational development can be traced to numerous demands, including maintaining superiority in the marketplace, enhancing employee skills and knowledge, and increasing productivity. Training is one of the most pervasive methods for enhancing the productivity of individuals and communicating organizational goals to new personnel. The authors note that in 2000, U. S. organizations with 100 or more employees budgeted to spend $54 billion on formal training.Given the importance and potential effect of training on organizations and the costs associated with the development and implementation of training, it is important that both researchers and practitioners have a better understanding of the relationship between design and evaluation features and the effectiveness of training efforts. Sa hinidis and Bouris (2008) noted that insufficient knowledge and skills which can be imparted through training can cause employees not to feel motivated and lack commitment.Abbas and Yaqoob (2009) noted that training is designed to skill employees so they can perform well. This can be done by formally developing training programs or informally through on job training. Insufficiency in knowledge and skills may result into conflict with organizational goal achievement and eventually affecting employee performance. The authors concluded that training influences employee performance Olaniyan and Ojo (2008) note that the effectiveness and success of an organization lies on the people who form and work within the organization.Consequently, for the employees in an organization to be able to perform their duties and make meaningful contributions to the success of the organizational goals, they need to acquire the relevant skills and knowledge. In appreciation of this fact, organization like educational institution, conduct formal training programmes for the different levels of their employees. Institute for Work & Health (2010) identified two broad approaches to research on training effectiveness. One approach employs triangulation of multiple data sources and methods to gather data from end users of training.This method combines qualitative data (e. g. from key informant interviews, focus groups and observations) with various forms of quantitative data (e. g. from controlled study situations. These data are then used to assemble valid co-relational arguments for interpretation of results. The other approach to studying the effectiveness of training explores cause and effect relationships that are pertinent to the learning process or the application of learned material within the workplace. These studies use experimental designs to investigate factors related to the training process itself.They use measurable outcomes affecting individuals or work teams and, if feasibl e, gather data related to the impacts of training on the organization or relevant industry. Haslinda and Mahyuddin (2009) examined the effectiveness of training in the public sector using training evaluation framework and transfer of training elements. The findings of this study suggest that public service employees were evaluated at all five levels of evaluation, namely, the reaction, learning, behavior change, results and transfer of training levels.Factors that can affect the effectiveness of training in the public sector include lack of support from top management and peers, employees’ individual attitudes, job-related factors and also the deficiencies in training practice. The study was done in Kuala Lampur. A number of factors have been identified that influence the effectiveness of training in an organization. Haslinda and Mahyuddin (2009) identified the human resource policy of training, employees’ attitude and motivation, and the commitment of top management t o the training and development as some of the key factors.Pfeifer, Janssen, Yang and Backes-Gellner (2011) observe that training can serve as a screening device without increasing individual productivity, i. e. , the firm learns about abilities and skills of workers and can promote the best fitting (most productive) worker to the next job in the hierarchy. They also note that training might, on the other hand, indeed increase individual productivity by teaching skills and knowledge that are important to fulfil tasks at higher job levels.Gyes (2008) uses company-level panel data on training provided by employers in order to estimate its effect on productivity and wages in the food industry in Belgium. The productivity premium for a trained worker was estimated at 23%, while the wage premium of training is estimated at 12%. The study concluded that, by training its workers, a company can realise an extra added value per worker amounting to â‚ ¬1,385 higher than the cost of the requ ired training. Konings and Vanormelingen (2009) confirmed and expanded their analysis to the whole Belgian private sector.Again, the findings showed that training has a positive effect on productivity and wages. The marginal product of a trained worker is on average 23% higher than that of an untrained worker while wages increase by 12% as a result of training. Among the manufacturing subsectors, the largest productivity gains can be found in the chemicals and rubber and plastic industries. Finally, the study’s authors found no differential impact of training on the productivity of male versus female workers; however, wages increase more in response to training for women than for men.Almeida and Carneiro (2006), using a panel of about 1,500 large Portuguese manufacturing firms between 1995 and 1999, found that an increase of 10 hours per year in training per worker leads to an increase in productivity of about 0. 6 per cent. Colombo and Luca Stanca (2008) investigated the eff ects of training on employee productivity using a unique nationally representative panel of Italian firms for the years 2002 to 2005 and found that training activity has a positive and significant effect on productivity at firm level.Training also has a positive and significant effect on wages, but this effect is about half the size of the effect on productivity. Within occupational groups, the effect of training on productivity is large and significant for blue-collars, but relatively small and not significant for white-collars. Profile of Kenya Commercial Bank (KCB) The history of Kenya Commercial Bank dates back to 1896 when its predecessor, the National Bank of India, opened a small branch in the coastal town, Mombasa. In 1958 Grindlays Bank of Britain merged with the National Bank of India to form the National and Grindlays Bank.In 1970, the Government of Kenya acquired 60% shareholding in National and Grindlays Bank and renamed it the Kenya Commercial Bank. In 1976, the Govern ment acquired 100% of the shares to take full control of the largest commercial bank in Kenya. The Government has over the years reduced its shareholding in the Bank to the current 26% with the public owning the remaining 74% (KCB, 2011). The Kenya commercial bank has four subsidiaries; a wholly owned subsidiary, Savings and Loan (K) Ltd. was acquired in 1972 to provide mortgage finance.In 1997, another subsidiary, Kenya Commercial Bank (Tanzania) Limited was incorporated in Dar-es-salaam, Tanzania to provide banking and financial services and to facilitate cross-border trade within the East African region. Since inception, the Kenya Commercial Bank Group has endeavoured to provide quality and customer friendly services geared towards meeting the ever-changing customer needs. This has ensured consistent growth in customer deposits that have, in turn, provided a strong reservoir for steady growth in customer borrowings every year. Shares in KCB have, until 2004, historically underper formed most other publicly listed banks.The KCB share price has recovered dramatically since elections in 2004. KCB has more than 170 branches throughout Kenya, making it the largest banking network in the region. It has the largest number of own-branded ATMs in Kenya. Since 2004 most of the branches in Kenya have been rebranded as part of a wider corporate branding exercise. Since incorporation, KCB has achieved tremendous growth to emerge as a leader in Kenya's banking and financial sector. In 1970, the bank had 32 full- time branches, of which 25 were located in rural areas, five in Nairobi and two in Mombasa.Today, the KCB Group has the widest network of outlets in the country, comprising 170 full-time branches all of which represent over 55% of the total banking outlets in Kenya. Of the total outlets, 80% are located in the rural areas, with representation in all administrative districts. Statement of the Problem Training is an integral part of every company's agenda. Because o f the implications of training, it is important to have training that is effective. Studies have proven that more costly but effective training can save money that is wasted on cheap but inefficient training (Ginsberg and McCormick, 1998).Unfortunately, there is no rule of thumb method of effective training. Methods of training have to be analyzed and studied before companies can rely on them to train a competent workforce. Kenya commercial bank like any other organization is in the business of providing services to its customers. For the bank to effectively serve its customers, it has to have well trained employees who ensure quality service delivery. It is very important to have a needs analysis to determine which training method works best.There are several studies in this area in the banking industry in Kenya limited studies that have studied the impact of employee training on organizational productivity. There are numerous factors to be considered in making training method deci sions. Factors such as training objectives (what is aimed to be learned), cost, and trainee demographics are some important issues to be considered. The problem is to determine the effect of training on staff productivity. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to establish the effect of training on staff productivity in Kenyan banks.The study is important in developing information necessary to lead organizations on the importance of training. Objectives of the Study The study will be guided by the following objectives: 1. To determine the strategies used by KCB in employee training 2. To determine the effectiveness of training methods used by KCB 3. To determine the effectiveness of training on employee productivity at KCB 4. To recommend the best training strategies for maximum employee productivity at KCB Research Questions 1. What training strategies are used by KCB? 2. What effect do the training methods have on employee productivity at KCB? . How does employee train ing affect employee productivity at KCB? 4. What are the best employee training strategies for maximum employee productivity at KCB? Justification Training has become an increasingly critical area of management for companies to enhance service quality, reduce labor costs, and increase productivity (Enz & Siguaw, 2000). Training programs can also promote teamwork; improve staff attitudes and self-awareness (Conrade, Woods & Ninemeier, 1994). Organizations must therefore focus on these different aspects in order to maintain a competitive edge in their respective industries.Organizations should remember that training begins once an employee joins the organization and should continue throughout their tenure with the organization. Training can also be provided by everyone i. e. all employees are potential instructors and students Kenya Commercial Bank has been selected due to its large size, presence and location across the regions. In addition it has a dedicated training centre at Karen (KCB Leadership Centre) from which courses are developed and imparted to staff. Training is seen as a fundamental and effectual instrument in successful accomplishment of the bank’s goals and objectives.Training not only improves staff resourcefully, but also gives staff a chance to learn their job virtually and perform it more competently hence increasing bank’s productivity. The ultimate implication of staff training can be noted in the bank’s bottom line. A study to evaluate the effect of training on staff productivity at KCB is thus necessary. Significance of the Study This study aims to explore the effect of training on staff productivity in Kenyan banks. KCB The study will deepen the understanding between perception and expectations as well as improve the knowledge of staff productivity by banks.Further it will address the fundamental aspect of the correlation that necessitates KCB to undertake training to improve the productivity of its staff. Scholars T his research will provide information to scholars as well as form a basis for further research to be conducted, here in Kenya as well as world-wide, regarding the effect of training on staff productivity in Kenyan banks. Assumptions The following is assumed: 1) All staff will be available for interviews. 2) Respondents are truthful when responding to questions on the survey. 3) Training is a pressing issue for many staff. LimitationsThe limitations faced or anticipated are: First, due to the study limiting itself to one bank, the generalization of results can be challenged. Secondly, even though there will be a concentrated effort to get the questionnaire into the hands of all staff, there is no guarantee that the individuals will actually receive and complete the questionnaires. Lastly, due to locations of some KCB branches, some of the data collection instruments will be sent via email or sent by parcel to the branches, thereby compromising on time taken to process the same. Defin ition of Terms, abbreviations and acronyms KCB:Kenya Commercial BankTraining – A process dealing primarily with transferring or obtaining knowledge, attitudes and skills needed to carry out a specific activity or task. Chapter Summary This chapter covered the background of the research, the problem statement, the purpose of the study or general objectives of this research, the research questions, the significance and scope of the research i. e. importance of the study and the definitions of Terminologies used in this research. In chapter two, I will review relevant literature that will help build on the variables and data collection methods to be used in the study. CHAPTER TWOLITERATURE REVIEW Introduction The chapter will review relevant literature on the effect of training on staff productivity at Kenya Commercial Bank. In order to have an in depth knowledge on the effects of employee training on employee productivity, the chapter provides relevant literature in the field o f study. The first part provides an overview of training; the next part examines theoretical framework and effects of employee training on employee productivity. Mugenda and Mugenda (2003) noted that literature review involves critical review of what previous work in relation to the research problem being investigated.They argue that a properly done literature review should be extensive and thorough so as to provide the researcher with an adequate base for his or her work. I hope this literature review meets their esteemed standards. Theoretical Framework Human Capital Theory Human capital theory as formalized by Becker and Gerhart (1996) is the dominant perspective on on-the-job training. This theory views training as an investment; it raises expected future productivity but at a cost. The key distinguishing feature of a human capital investment as opposed to an investment in capital concerns property rights.A machine can be sold, but in modern society, men cannot. As individuals h ave the discretion over the deployment of their own human capital, workers and firms will need to agree on an exchange in the labor market. This implies that how the costs and returns to training are shared between workers and firms is a central concern in the on-the-job training literature. Human capital theory has been further developed in the 1970s to explain the life-cycle pattern of earnings. This literature analyses the human capital investment decision of individuals in a competitive environment.One may argue that, in this model, the distinction between education and training is an artificial one. Workers choose the investment as a function of prices (and ability). Through these prices, the demand side enters. There is no strategic interaction between workers and firms. Weiss (1985) surveys this literature. In the beginning of the 1990s, the new field of economics of information resulted in applications to on-the-job training. Recent developments in the training literature fo cus on the strategic interaction between employers and employees, and as such stands apart from life-cycle theories of earnings.The focus is on market imperfections and information asymmetries. This review restricts itself to the core of private sector training theory. The reason for this focus is the scattered nature of this literature. The studies in this field differ in many modeling assumptions that complicate comparison. Yet, some common themes can be distinguished. The first major attempt to apply learning theory to educational technology was Skinner? s development of teaching machines, (Skinner, 1968). His idea was to develop curricula at such a level of detail that a learner could learn without error.The learner, his theory held, never fully recovers from making errors; once made, there remains a possibility that they will recur to disrupt future learning and performance. Consequently, effective instruction should invoke only correct responses. He was critical of traditional teaching methods because they often engender errors in learning, and because they fail to reinforce behaviour effectively. On his theory, negative reinforcement (e. g. criticism, punishment) was to be avoided. Only positive reinforcement is theoretically sound, and this must be administrated according to specific schedules to ensure effective learning.For instance, as new responses are shaped up, reinforcement should be withdrawn. Mechanical presentation of the curriculum seemed an ideal way for teaching since a perfect schedule of shaping and reinforcement could be built into the teaching programme. Kirkpatrick's learning and training evaluation theory Donald Kirkpatrick's 1994 book Evaluating Training Programs defined his originally published ideas of 1959, thereby further increasing awareness of them, so that his theory has now become arguably the most widely used and popular model for the evaluation of training and learning.Kirkpatrick's four-level model is now considered an in dustry standard across the Human Resource and training communities. The four levels of Kirkpatrick's evaluation model essentially measure; (1) reaction of student – what they thought and felt about the training and the reaction evaluation is how the delegates felt about the training or learning experience. (2) Learning – the resulting increase in knowledge or capability, to assess whether the learning objectives of the program are met.Learning evaluation is the measurement of the increase in knowledge or intellectual capability from before, to after the learning experience: Whether the trainees learnt what they expected to be taught; (3) behavior – The extent of behavior and capability improvement and implementation or application. Behavior evaluation is the extent to which the trainees applied the learning and changed their behavior, and this can be immediately or several months after the training, depending on the situation (the extent of applied learning back on the job. 4) Results – the effects on the business or environment resulting from the trainee's performance. Results evaluation is the effect on the business or environment resulting from the improved performance of the trainee. This involves the organizational impact in terms of improved quality of work, increased output etc. It is the acid test. All these measures are recommended for full and meaningful evaluation of learning in organizations, although their application broadly increases in complexity, and usually cost, through the levels from level 1-4.Effects of Training on Employee Productivity Research has shown that leadership training for executives and middle managers results in increased worker productivity (Barling, Weber, & Kelloway, 1996). Leadership development training could have the same benefits if given to the rest of the workforce (IIE Solutions, 1999). Leadership development, supervisory skills, and teamwork training often rank as the most important and most frequently offered training topics in corporations.With the amount of money budgeted for training increasing every year and the marketplace becoming more global and competitive, it is imperative that the money spent on training is utilized to the fullest extent possible (IIE Solutions, 1999). According to Kapp (1999), manufacturing firms implementing training programs can expect an average gain of 17% in manufacturing productivity. Companies must understand that training is portable; that is, the knowledge imparted to employees will leave with the employee, thus benefiting another company. This also allows new employees to bring with them the knowledge ained from previous training programs. It is from this viewpoint that a company must manage its training program to identify the skill sets needed to increase problem solving for the present needs of the business (Miller, 1997). If gains in manufacturing productivity are achieved through the delivery of leadership training to tra ditional leadership groups, can similar gains be achieved in the banking industry by providing the same training to employees? Training and Employee performance People needing training can be classified in different ways. There is a distinction between novice users and expert users.They can also be classified through their educational backgrounds, or through their current employment position. Whatever way trainees are classified, they all have different needs. It is important, when choosing a training method, to identify who is to be trained. Novice users may be computer-shy or technology-intimidated and may need personal attention. Experts may need little attention and may be bored with basic information, and therefore dampening the desire to learn. According to Campbell (2000), educational background information is important.He also says that for people with little education, structure in learning is important. Employee position is important as well. Senior management may not have the time to attend group training or may have frequent distractions. The issue of self-esteem may also be a factor. Someone high in the ranks may not want to appear stupid to his counterparts by asking a question in group training. The explanation contributed by the knowledge management approach would be that training provides employees with the knowledge, abilities and skills required by the position.In fact, Hitt, Ireland, Camp and Sexton (2001) found that training investment first generates a negative effect on results (deriving from the cost of the same), which later become positive, as far as the transfer of knowledge to the post is concerned. This effect can also be explained by taking into consideration that if employees perceive that the organisation is interested in training them and giving them confidence and intends to count on them in the long-term future, they will make more effort and be more effective in their work.Training would be an important element in generating human capital. This argument is defended by Tzafrir (2005), who considers that investment in training can make employees feel indebted to the company. From a universal viewpoint some authors have argued that it is precisely in training that a greater universal effect than in other human resource practices can be seen. This is how it was noted by Lee et al. (2005) who highlight the fact that, of the 16 best practices studied by Pfeffer (1994), training is one of the few practices where a consistent, positive impact on performance is found.The study carried out by Koch and McGrath (1996) does not directly analyze the relationship of training with performance; instead, it uses a personnel development index that showed a slightly significant effect on work productivity, measured by net sales per employee. However, this development index only gathers information through the measurement of the number of categories of jobs that receive formal training, which, to me, seems to be a very lim ited indicator of the training imparted by the company.In Huselid (1995) and Huselid, Jackson and Schuler (1997) investigation, something similar happens. The combination of human resource practices is used rather than the training variable. In the first study, Huselid (1995) uses two factors to group the practices requiring a high level of commitment, the first of which designates employee and organized structure capabilities, including a wide range of practices aimed at developing the knowledge, abilities and capabilities of employees.However, we are given to understand that it incorporates very heterogeneous practices where training has a relative weighting, since only one of the eight factor items makes reference to training (the average number of training hours received by the employee in the last year). A greater effort in training measurement can be found in the work of Delaney and Huselid (1996), who use a training index constructed from three items. The first records whethe r the company supplied some sort of training besides job position training, the second how many workers participated in hese programmes and the third a subjective evaluation of training effectiveness. Its results suggest that high performance practices in human resource management that include contracting on a selective basis, with training and incentives, are positively related with measurements of perception of the organization’s role. Training and Employee Commitment Training practices used by organizations may have an effect, direct or indirect on both employee motivation and organizational commitment (Meyer and Smith, 2000).Organizational commitment is defined, in the words of Aragon et al (2003) as the relative strength of an individual's identification and involvement in a particular organization. In order to equip their employees with the skills necessary to do their job, companies train them, in an effort to optimize their workforce's potential. Some companies, plann ing for the long-term, invest in the development of new skills by their employees, so as to enable them to handle issues not currently present, but likely to come up in the future.This kind of training can lead to high levels of motivation and commitment by the employees, who actually see the opportunity they are given. These employees' appreciation for the investment their organization is making in them is shown in their hard work and their contentment in being a member of that organization. Training, then, is expected to have a positive effect on both motivation and employee commitment Training Methods and Employee Productivity It is readily acknowledged that individuals tend to learn differently based on preferred styles of teaching (Chambers, 2005).Since these teaching styles impact the way individuals learn, training sessions could be augmented by designing the content to tap into each of the three different styles, thus appealing to a broad scope of disparate learning styles. For example, visual learners tend to process and recall information best when it is presented in a way that they can easily see the information. This can be achieved through the use of hand-outs, PowerPoint slides including pertinent information, and also other forms of multimedia such as videos or computer-based simulations.Auditory learners, by comparison, process information from more of a listening perspective. Consequently, training can be augmented to focus on this preferred style by frequent descriptions of the pertinent information. This can easily be accomplished by verbalizing the content in handouts and PowerPoint presentations. Further augmentation can be achieved by allowing trainees to discuss important content in small group settings. The third learning style, kinesthetic, includes individuals who learn best by physically doing something.Augmenting training to tap into this learning style requires the trainer to design exercises and activities that allow the learner t o be physically engaged in learning. For example, a training session on team work may include an exercise where groups, working as a team, actually work jointly to accomplish some small task. One such exercise requires groups to identify some symbol they frequently associate with the idea of teams and then to work within their groups to construct their symbol using modeling clay.This provides both visual and tactile reinforcement associated with the concepts covered in the training. Following this exercise, further discussion can reiterate important aspects of teamwork that were discussed in the training session, further reinforcing the material (Huselid, 1995). On-The-Job Training Methods The purpose of the on-the-job training session is to provide employee with task-specific knowledge and skills in work area. The knowledge and skills presented during on-the-job are directly related to job requirements.Job instruction technique, job rotation, coaching and apprenticeship training ar e the common forms of on-the job training methods. Employees’ professional quality is the key of bank services, the rules and principles of work are taught in this kind of training, besides, courtesy, manners and techniques of handling interpersonal relations are taught as well. This kind of training aims to train employees to learn the best way to do the work in the most quickly and effective way (Walker, 2007). Job Instruction TrainingThis is a structured approach to training, which requires trainees to proceed through a series of steps in sequential pattern. The technique uses behavioral strategy with a focus on skill development, but there are usually some factual and procedural knowledge objectives as well. This type of training is good for task oriented duties such as operating equipment. The instructor or supervisor prepares a job breakdown on the job, while watching an experienced worker perform each step of the job.Job instruction technique consists of four steps, pr eparation, present, try out and follow up (Blandchard & Thacker, 1999). Job Rotation This is the systematic movement of employees from job to job or project to project within an organization, as a way to achieve various different human resources objectives such as: simply staffing jobs, orienting new employees, preventing job boredom or burnout, rewarding employees, enhancing career development, exposing employees to diverse environments (Woods, 1995).Excellent job rotation program can decrease the training costs while increases the impact of training, because job rotation is a hand on experience. Job rotation makes individuals more self-motivated, flexible, adaptable, innovative, eager to learn and able to communicate effectively. One of the possible problems with the rotation programs is the cost, because job rotation increases the amount of management time to spend on lower level employees. It may increase the workload and decrease the productivity for the rotating employeeâ€⠄¢s manager and for other employees.Job rotation may be especially valuable for organizations that require firm-specific skills because it provides an incentive to organizations to promote from within (Jerris, 1999). Coaching This is the process of one-on-one guidance and instruction to improve knowledge, skills and work performance. Coaching is becoming a very popular means of development, and often includes working one-on-one with the learner to conduct a needs assessment, set major goals to accomplish, develop an action plan, and support the learner to accomplish the plan.The learner drives these activities and the coach provides continuing feedback and support (DOE Handbook1074, 1995). Usually coaching is directed at employees with performance deficiencies, but also used as a motivational tool for those performing well. Coaching methods solve precise problems such as communication, time management and social skills. Executive coaching generally takes place on a monthly basis and continues over a period of several years. Often, coaches are brought in where there is a change in the structure of the company, when a team or individual is not performing well or where new skills are required.Coaching assumes that you are fine but could be even better (Kirwan, 2000). Apprenticeship This is one of the oldest forms of training which is designed to provide planned, practical instruction over a significant time span. Apprenticeship was the major approach to learning a craft. The apprentice worked with a recognized master craft person (McNamara, 2000). Training and Employee Effectiveness Analysis from the beginning is definitely needed for training to be effective. The effectiveness of training is usually measured through user performance (Yi & Davis, 2001).They introduces the idea of training validity which assess the performance of trainees in relation to the criteria set by the training. Training must always be evaluated with respect to both its immediate and long term impacts (Patton & Marlow, 2002). It starts from the training experience to the training outcome. The training experience includes the actual training and the immediate effects of the training based on performance. Training outcomes are the long term effects of the training (Carroll and Rosson). Researchers who have analyzed the impact of type of firm and firm size n employee training examined the training budget as the dependent variable Hitt et al (2001). A variety of training programs (in particular, informal training programs such as on-the-job training, job rotation, and apprenticeships) not usually included in the training budget were not considered, as though skills and knowledge acquired through these training programs are not relevant. Sirmon and Hitt (2003) drew attention to the importance of informal training to skill and knowledge acquisition in small firms.In spite of the fact that in the real entrepreneurial world only a small number of companies measure the impact of training on the results (Koch & McGrath, 1996) several authors suggest that training is an instrument that makes the generation and accumulation of human capital possible. Training ensures that greater efficiency is achieved through the production of goods and services with a realistic profit margin in so doing the organization is assured of its survival in the market and in the sector as a whole (Huselid, 1995).Given evidence that the support from peers in a training venue can impact the overall effectiveness of the learning (Armstrong, 1998). It might be beneficial to augment training by providing contact information on other training participants, encouraging trainees to communicate and interact following the training session. This could be done on strictly a voluntary basis where trainees could be asked to provide contact information to be listed on a roster of participants, thus minimizing potentially offending those wishing to keep their contact information private.This in formation could be obtained prior to the training session and then the roster could be distributed during the session. In addition to obtaining contact information, trainers could also ask participants to voluntarily provide information related to key knowledge and skills that may further enhance the likelihood that trainees would contact others for the purpose of networking or benchmarking.The perceived importance of training to improvements in productivity, sustained competitive advantage, and ultimately to firm performance has led governments in various countries to invest considerable resources into programs that encourage management and employee training in enterprises (Patton and Marlow, 2002). It is believed that training is a powerful agent to development of capabilities and to growth and profitability of the firm (Armstrong, 1998).Koch and McGrath (1996) argued that firms that invest in employee training engage in formal performance appraisal, and link these to incentive co mpensation are likely to have lower employee turnover, higher productivity, and enhanced financial performance. Cosh, Duncan and Hughes (1997) suggested that training would enhance the survival rate of small firms. Similarly, Delaney and Huselid (1996) noted that the most successful firms provide employees more training than average. Ford and Wroten (1984) established a link between employee training and superior firm performance.In addition, small business failure has been linked to poor management skills. It is argued that management training should greatly improve firm survival and performance (Ford & Wroten, 1984). Macrae (1991) established that major distinguishing factors between high-growth and low-growth small firms are the education, training, and experience of their senior managers. The existing literature tends to focus on management training (Heneman, Tansky & Camp, 2000) to the exclusion of other forms of employee training.Few researchers have investigated the determina nts of training in organizations and in all cases the dependent variable-training–was measured by a single variable, the training budget. Because informal training is often not accounted for in the firm's books, the literature tends to be biased toward formal training. Employee training and development is an important programme that promotes employees in an organizational set up. The need for manpower development programmes cannot be overemphasized, as the application of acquired skills will go along way to ensure effective productivity in a world of work.Many employees have failed in organizations because of lack of basic training which was not identified and provided for as an indispensable part of management function (Nwachukwu, 1988). As such, for an organization to realize the full potential of its employees, adequate employee training is necessary to ensure that the organization realizes its objectives. Olaniyan and Ojo (2008) note that training physically, socially, in tellectually and mentally are very essential in facilitating not only the level of productivity but also the development of personnel in any organization.The authors define training as a systematic development of knowledge, skills and attitudes required by employees to perform adequately on a given task or job. New entrants into organizations have various skills, though not all are relevant to organizational needs. Training and development are required for staff to enable them work towards taking the organization to its expected destination. Training Quality and Performance Employee performance is an important building block of an organization and factors which lay the foundation for high performance must be analyzed by the organizations.Since every organization cannot progress by one or two individual’s effort, it is collective effort of all the members of the organization. Performance is a major multidimensional construct aimed to achieve results and has a strong link to st rategic goals of an organization (Mwita, 2000). Managers at all the levels have to input their efforts and make maximum use of their abilities which sometimes are produced under supervision or without it. However, there are many expectations from managers working for an organization.These expectations are sometimes fulfilled but in some situations these managers may be running to their boss for guidance. Therefore, the managers must be developed so that they can think and work on their own and fulfill their responsibilities innovatively, while understanding and foreseeing the market and business situations. Consequently question arises that how an employee can work more efficiently and effectively to increase the productivity and growth of an organization.William Edward Deming, one of the quality Gurus defines quality as a predictable degree of uniformity and dependability at low costs and suitable to the market, he advises that an organisation should focus on the improvement of the process as the system rather than the work is the cause of production variation (Heyes, 2000) Many service organisations have embraced this approach of quality assurance by checking on the systems and processes used to deliver the end product to the consumer.Essentially this checks on; pre-sale activities which encompass the advice and guidance given to a prospective client, customer communications ( how well the customers are informed of the products and services, whether there are any consultancy services provided to help the customers assess their needs and any help line available for ease of access to information on products), the speed of handling a client’s transactions and processing of claims, the speed of handling customers calls and the number of calls abandoned or not answered, on the selling point of Products/Services a customer would be interested to know about the opening hours of the organization, the convenience of the location and such issues (Lee, Lee & Pen nings, 2005). This is only possible when employees are well trained and developed to ensure sustainability of the same.Heyes (2000) stated that an organization should commit its resources to a training activity only if, in the best judgment of managers, the training can be expected to achieve some results other than modifying employee behaviour. It must support some organizational and goals, such as more efficient producer or distribution of goods and services, product operating costs, improved quality or more efficient personal relations is the modification of employees behaviour affected through training should be aimed at supporting organization objectives. According to Armstrong and Baron (2005) all organizations are concerned with what should be done to achieve sustainable high levels of performance through people. This means giving close attention on how individual can best be motivated through such means as incentives, rewards, leadership and training.The aim is to develop mo tivation processes and work environment that will help to ensure that individuals deliver results in accordance with the expectation of management. For current employees whose job performance is not satisfactory. It may be that some type of additional training can help to bring them up to pair. Such training needs may be experienced with employees or with group of employees or individual who need additional training it is necessary to determine what they need. According to Heyes (2000), Training can only add value results if there is an opportunity for added value. Either the business is not performing effectively because people are not performing, or there is a market opportunity, which can be exploited but requires some new training or development.Training ensures that greater efficiency is achieved through the production of goods and services with a realistic profit margin in so doing the organization is assured of its survival in the market and in the sector as a whole (Tzafrir, 2005). The quality of employees and their development through training are major factors in determining long-term profitability and optimum performance of organizations. To hire and keep quality employees, it is good policy to invest in the development of their skills, knowledge and abilities so that individual and ultimately organizational productivity can increase. Traditionally, training is given to new employees only. This is a mistake as ongoing training for existing employees helps them adjust rapidly to changing job requirements.Organizations that are committed to quality invest in training of its employees (Evans & Lindsay 1999). According to Evans and Lindsay (1999), Xerox Business Products and Systems invest over $125 million in quality training. Motorola & Texas Instruments provide at least 40 hours of training to every employee quarterly. A complete employee training program includes a formal new hire training program with an overview of the job expectations and perform ance skills needed to perform the job functions (Odekunle, 2001). A new hire training program provides a fundamental understanding of the position and how the position fits within the organizational structure.The more background knowledge the new associate has about how one workgroup interrelates with ancillary departments, the more the new associate will understand his or her impact on the organization. Models for Measuring the Effectiveness of Training Measuring the training effectiveness should be an important asset for the organizations. There are some criteria for measuring the success of training; direct cost, indirect cost, efficiency, performance to schedule, reactions, learning, behavior change, performance change (Sheppard, 1999). The Kirkpatrick’s Four Level Approach It was created by Donald Kirkpatrick in 1959, at the time; he was a professor of marketing at the University of Wisconsin.It is still one of the most widely used approaches. His four level of evaluatio n are: reaction – a measure of satisfaction, learning – a measure of learning, behavior – a measure of behavior change and results- a measure of results (Phillips, 1997:39). Kirkpatrick model is now nearly 45 years old. Its elegant simplicity has caused it to be the most widely used methods of evaluation training programs. ASTD’s (American Society for Training Development) survey, which reports feedback from almost 300 Human Resource executives and managers, revealed that 67% of organizations that conduct evaluations use the Kirkpatrick model (Stone and Watson, 1999). Table 2. : Kirkpatrick Four Levels of Evaluation |Level 1: Reaction |Were the participants pleased? | | |What do they plan to do with what they learned? | |Level 2: Learning |What skills, knowledge, or attitudes have change? By | | |how much? | |Level 3: Behavior |Did the participants change their behavior based on | | |what was learned in the program? |Level 4: Results |Did the change in be havior positively affect the | | |organization? | Resource: Stone J. and Watson V. , (1999), Evaluation of Trainig, www. ispi-atlanta. org Kaufman’s Five Level of Evaluation Some researchers, recognizing some shortcomings of Kirkpatrick’s four level approach, have attempted to modify and add to this basic framework. Kaufman offers one such presentation. Kaufman has expanded the definition of Level 1 and added a fifth level addressing societal issues (Philips, 1997:40). At level 1, the factor of the concept enabling addresses the availability of various resource inputs necessary for a successful intervention.At Level 5 is the evaluation of societal and client responsiveness, and consequences in payoff. This moves ev

Immigration Reform Persuasive Essay - 1062 Words

Immigration Reform: A call to action. The evening news is ripe with controversial legislation, policy and debate from the lawmakers of the United States. Some of the most interesting headlines in recent history discuss the huge battles on labor laws in Wisconsin and Iowa, the anticipation of a Republican front runner for the upcoming Presidential elections, and discussion of our nation’s ability to understand and predict future happenings in Libya, Saudi Arabia and Egypt. Any of these topics could spark a heated conversation in any coffee house or roadside diner in this country but perhaps there is no issue which stays on the forefront, which riles testy tempers, and which needs to be discussed so much as this country’s policies on†¦show more content†¦This has created a chaotic environment that cannot serve to bring about uniform and comprehensive change (Campbell. 2010. Pp. 415-416.). The delay in reform or uniform enforcement has tremendously impacted the La tino community. One doesn’t even need to understand Spanish and needs only to watch a few minutes of the network newscast Primer Impacto on Univision to see the hectic fear the Latino community in this country faces. The program offers numerous stories of Latinos fearing deportation, or unable to obtain new visas, or in fear of losing family, friends and jobs due to changes in enforcement and new legislation. Many are fleeing back to countries where drug cartels are literally at war with governments and where there is no opportunity for education or success. Some may argue that this is helpful to the nation’s immigration problems but if we continue watching the same newscast we see stories of drug trafficking, murders, and violence. It seems quite logical that those who flee are the shop owners, the laborers, and so many others who simply want the opportunity to earn an honest wage and improve their life while the cartels, gangs, and violence continues to spill over th e borders. Unfortunately it is not the criminals who are being run out, it is the honest people who trulyShow MoreRelatedPersuasive Essay On Immigration Reform1636 Words   |  7 PagesThe immigration reform, an important issue for the U.S. government has accelerated significantly in the past few years. It has been debated between the democratic and republican senators to reform a framework for the immigration. President Obama gave a speech to push for an immigration reform in favor of undocumented 11 million immigrants in the USA, as well as a road map for their legal citizenship. It has also been suggested that a sub citizenship could be an option instead of providing full citizenshipRead MorePersuasive Essay On Immigration Reform1110 Words   |  5 PagesImmigration reform has been a big debate since 1790. The Naturalization Act of 1790 was the first act to established rules for naturalized citizenship. The citizenship was only granted to those who has live in America for at le ast two years and is a free white person of good character. Although some rules were set, the policy of immigration reform are full of comprehensiveness (Soergel). Some believe that immigration is a dreadful thing because they take up jobs and bring in terrorists; Other considerRead MoreEssay on America, Land of Immigrants746 Words   |  3 Pagespeoples is to simultaneously be an American and retain their personal cultural identity. It must be difficult to find the balance of personal identity and not seam un-American. This issue is discussed in the short essay by Myriam Marquez â€Å"Why and When We Speak Spanish in Public.† In the essay, Marquez explains how she and her family chose to use their native tongue, Spanish, instead of English. She says they do this, despite the impression some people may get of them being rude, â€Å"out of respect for theirRead MoreEssay about History: World War I and Bold Experiments7600 Words   |  31 Pagesthe following chapters in Henr etta et al., America’s History, Seventh Edition: Chapter ­17 ­ The Busy Hive: Industrial America at Work, 1877–1911 Chapter 18 The Victorians Meet the Modern, 1880–1917 Chapter 19 â€Å"Civilization’s Inferno†: The Rise and Reform of Industrial Cities, 1880 –1917 Chapter 20 Whose Government? Politics, Populists, and Progressives, 1880 –1917 Chapter 21 An Emerging World Power, 1877–1918 Chapter 22 Wrestling with Modernity, 1918 –1929 Part 5 Essential Questions After studyingRead MoreZadeh Rhetorical Analysis1952 Words   |  8 Pagessystems of American immigration policies. In addition, once he does eventually get into the country, the blockades to starting up his business have no interest in easing off. By exposing these malpractices to a larger audience, Zadeh wants to convince readers that immigration policies are more of a hindrance than a help. Zadeh’s main rhetoric use is pathos, and his emotional ties to his experience gives the reader a very clear and thoughtful description of the horrors of immigration. However, he doesn’tRead MoreBoyer Dbq Teacher Guide10764 Words   |  44 PagesTeachers’ Guide This guide is intended to suggest some possible ways that students may organize essays related to the document-based questions in the Advanced Placement version of The Enduring Vision, 6th Edition, and to provide teachers with some information on each included document. The suggestions certainly do not exhaust the possibilities; students, no doubt, will create other valid and persuasive organizational patterns and document applications. Here, the documents are discussed in order toRead MoreWhats Behind United States Immigration (Exploratory Essay)3000 Words   |  12 PagesMellizza Lansang EN102-21169 Prof: M Jacob Broderick 9 October 2012 What is behind US Immigration? Illegal immigration has been a huge problem of United States for a long period of time. There are two common ways of how people come to US illegally; first is to cross the border between Mexico and US; second is to overstay when they come to US as a visitor. Why do people want to come to the United States if they are going to be here illegally? Simply, because those illegal immigrants want to have aRead MoreKevin Hernandez Midyr Ushist3156 Words   |  13 PagesLabor and Education Statistics DOCUMENT #8: United States Anti-Trust Law DOCUMENT #9: Prohibition Documentary DOCUMENT #10: United States Immigration Law TAKING NOTES on the DOCUMENTS (Pros and Cons) ENGAGING IN ACADEMIC DISCUSSIONS (optional) MY ARGUMENTS ORGANIZER HISTORY WRITING TASK ASSESSMENT ARGUMENTATIVE SCORING RUBRIC – STUDENT VERSION PERFORMANCE WRITTEN ESSAY       OUSD_History Writing Task_G11_Mid-Year 2014-15 STUDENT VERSION PAGE 2 Return to ​ TABLE OF CONTENTS 11th Grade Mid-Year HistoryRead MoreOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 PagesSandweiss, St. Louis: The Evolution of an American Urban Landscape Sam Wineburg, Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts: Charting the Future of Teaching the Past Sharon Hartman Strom, Political Woman: Florence Luscomb and the Legacy of Radical Reform Michael Adas, ed., Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History Jack Metzgar, Striking Steel: Solidarity Remembered Janis Appier, Policing Women: The Sexual Politics of Law Enforcement and the LAPD Allen Hunter, ed.,Read MorePropaganda by Edward L Bernays34079 Words   |  137 Pagesstories. Four of them, or one-half, are propaganda. The casual reader accepts them as accounts of spontaneous happenings. But are they? Here are the headlines which announce them: TWELVE NATIONS WARN THEY WILL CHINA GIVE FAIL, REAL RELIEF, REALTY REFORM MUST COME BEFORE ZIONISM INPRITCHETT MEN REPORTS A DEMAND TRANSIT QUIRY, and OUR LIVING STANDARD HIGHEST IN HISTORY, SAYS HOOVER REPORT. Take them in order: the article on China explains 23 Propaganda the joint report of